Non-Traditional non-sex/gender-specific risk factors
² Cardiologia ambulatoriale ASL Umbria 1 – Perugia, Italy
³ Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, Clinical Cardiology Unit, Policlinico di Monserrato, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
⁴ Chief of Internal Medicine Operative Unit Ospedale San Pietro Fatebenefratelli, Rome, Italy
⁵ Italian College of General Practitioners and Primary Care – SIMG – 50142 Florence, Italy
Abstract
The present paper explores non-traditional cardiovascular risk factors that are not directly related to sex or gender but significantly impact cardiovascular health in both men and women. Socioeconomic status, psychological stress, environmental pollution, violence, and abuse contribute to increased cardiovascular risk through mechanisms such as chronic inflammation, altered neuroendocrine regulation, and unhealthy lifestyle behaviours. Depression and mental health disorders are more common in women and are associated with increased inflammatory markers and endothelial dysfunction, leading to higher rates of atherosclerosis and adverse outcomes. Chronic stress, sleep disorders, and autoimmune diseases further amplify cardiovascular risk, with women often experiencing distinct pathophysiological responses due to hormonal and genetic factors. Emerging evidence highlights the importance of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), migraine, and cancer therapies as additional risk factors, particularly in women. The need for personalised screening, prevention and treatment strategies that take into account sex and gender differences, as well as the influence of socio-economic and environmental determinants, is emphasised. Recognizing and addressing these multifaceted risk factors is essential for improving cardiovascular outcomes and advancing equitable healthcare for women.
Key words: Women; Cardiovascular Risk; Non-Traditional Risk Factors; Non Gender Specific Risk Factors; Socioeconomic Factors; Environmental Factors; Autoimmune Diseases; Mental Diseases.
